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Techniques for Achieying Interracial Cooperation
By HARorp A. LETT

Mr. Lett, Executive Secretary of
the New Jersey Urban League, has
had extensive experience on the
‘Atlantic Coast and in the Middle
‘West in the human relations fields

of industrial and civic life. From
this experience he writes with
illumination on one of the most
crucial problems of contemporary
society and education.

IN AppRESSING our thoughts to this
subject, I think it is incumbent upon
each of us at the outset to indulge
in a period of rigid self-analysis =

opposing forces, separated by walls of
tradition and moats of animosities,
whose height and depth are measured
in almost exact proportion to our
personal knowledge and understand-
ing of, and sympathy with, the
problem.

Segregation, and its inevitable con-
concomitant, discrimination, have
created much bitterness and resent-
ment in the hearts of many Negro
Americans, but admission of that fact
does not imply that Negroes are un-
willing to join hands in working
toward the alleviation and ultimate.
elimination of these twin evils. The
continued existente of segregation
and discr even in limited

of a coldly objective
those factors which force us to ae
of the topic as a peculiar problem.
Such examination will disclose that
the need for community effort toward
achievement of interracial codpera-
tion has been made apparent by the

fears, and

degrees, leads inevitably to the adop-
tion of a Master race philosophy by
an increasing number of white citi-
zens, who accept the easier course of
conforming to tradition in preference
to risking the dangers of reprisal by

conflicts which are inherent in a “bE
racial society such as we in our nation
have created. These attitudes in turn
are strengthening and deepening the
dangerous expressions of racial in-
sularity which created them, setting
in motion a vicious cycle of

these practices. But this
fact does not indicate that all white
citizens permit such fears to becloud
their judgment and sense of decency.

It is not surprising, therefore, that
the pattern of physical separation
creates a state that might be termed

and counter-aggression which today
represents the greatest single threat
to the democratic ideal.

It is this racial insularity which
makes the usually well-defined task
of community organization seem to
assume baffling proportions when di-
rected to, interracial activities. In-
stead of seeing citizens who are to be
drawn together in a common experi
ence, we are conditioned to see two

62

psy through
operation of which, each group as-
cribes to the other different aims and
ideals, different thought patterns, dif-
ferent motives and objectives; living
as it were, in separate and distinct
thought worlds as well as in segre-
gated physical environments. It is
this almost universal condition of
misunderstanding, suspicion, and dis-
trust that presents real but soluble
problems as we entertain plans for

ACHIEVING INTERRACIAL COOPERATION

interracial action in our respective
communities.

And yet, the task of achieving
interracial coöperation, of itself, holds
no great mystery. It is the old, old
problem of human relations, to which
has been added the sharper spice
which skin-color provides as an in-
creased stimulus. White pepper in
one’s soup will provide plenty of heat,
but the same amount of black pepper
would be unbearable to the average

late because of the added visual
stimulus. The Negro's “high visi-
bility,” as it appears to the white com-
munity, symbolizes the many super-
stitions i with

63°

or the fight will cement them into a
hard-hitting combination.

In the ‘white world, the Negro-
phobe who opposes any form of inter-
racial contact that is on a plane of
dignity, and the person whose inse-
curity is such that he adopts the “me
too” attitude to escape the reprisals
of his more intolerant race brothers,
are known factors. These we learn
to discount or eliminate from imme-
diate consideration as we plan our
organization. Whether or not we de-
vote sufficient time to the identifica-
tion and selection of the positive fac-
tors—the forthright element of the
white c the socially in-

by American society, and makes the
problem appear in such magnitude
that rationality often is excluded.
Thus, there are the tendencies in
community organization to enter
upon this phase of work skeptically,
Yearfully, or hopelessly, because of
our proneness to magnify its diffi-
culties.

It seems to me that our first con-
sideration in discussing method is
that of starting from the firm founda-
tion upon which is based all deeper,
human relationships. To achieve any
kind of mutual understanding and
regard, people must share experiences
which permit the interplay of charac-
ter and personality. They must share
a common objective; work together
toward its achievement; experience
the chagrin of frustration and the
thrill of accomplishment — together.
Football teams, business firms, and
armies are built upon this principle.
One teammate, partner or comrade-
in-arms may have little in common
with the other, but the mutually de-
sired objective of the game, the deal,

telligent member of the Negro com-
munity—is that which will determine
the effectiveness of our efforts.

Granting that a solution to the
problem of racial antipathies in
America will not be found by the
white population alone, and cannot
be evolved by the Negro population,
working in a vacum, it is our task
to discover how interracial move-
ments on the local community level
may prove effective, and by what
means time-proven rules governing
community organization may be ap-
plied to this area of activity.

As implied earlier, the task of form-
ing a functioning organization has
been accomplished on all levels of
life by building around an objective,
and by applying methods which pro-
vide a common interest. The greater
the emotional blockings and the high-
er the intellectual barriers, the nar-
rower is the field of common or
mutual interest. How well we are
able to evaluate the emotional fac-
tors, again, is a test of our own abjec-
tivity. For instance, the Jewish schol-

64 HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW

ar and the Gentile scientist, whose
one major barrier may be religious
prejudice, have much more in com-
mon than the Scotch-Irish industrial-
ist and the Scotch-Irish labor leader,
between whom lies a broad abyss of
class, caste, economic conflict, and all
their evil by-products. The latter
two can be brought together, as they
are in increasing measure today, by
a concern over their mutual security
against each other in a peace-time
economy, and in mutual protection
against common enemies in a war
economy. It would be foolhardy in-
deed to call them together for Sunday
afternoon recitals as a measure of
achieving mutual appreciation, or to
embark upon a codperative program
intended to provide a cure-all for
society's ills.

The area of common interest be-
tween the Negro and white com-
munities seems to many persons in
both groups to be severely narrowed.
The field of interest is not at all re-
stricted; but the choice of workers in
that field is seriously limited because
of the existing pattern which has left
its livid imprint upon the emotional
lives of otherwise decent, upstanding,
neighborly people. Most of those who
are available are not themselves en-
tirely free of restraint, making it more
necessary that tact and patience be
employed in service that brings grati-
fication without extending them be-
yond their limits. I believe all of us
have known the white associate who
believes in employment opportunities
for Negro workers, but who will balk
at the thought of removing restrictive
barriers in restaurant, theatre, or resi-
dential areas. I am sure we all have
known the Negro who has a practical

[VoL. xv, No. 1

outlook on the race situation, but
who will decline to waste time in
pointless discussions with white per-
sons whose sincerity he questions.

In such situations, too frequently
there has been the tendency to adopt
the “all or nothing attitude.” By
charging the white person with in-
sincerity because he holds some reser-
vation, and the Negro with fear,
inferiority, or antagonism because he
is impatient with vacillation, both
are discarded and we have lost values
which cannot be measured by failing
to find that practical, active program
which would have afforded both an
opportunity to re-appraise themselves
and their attitudes.

In the immediate past, the term
“interracial committee” has carried a
connotation of cloying paternalism
and purposeless posturing. Yet, we
cannot question the sincerity of pur-
pose or quarrel with the motives
which have inspired many such move-
ments deserving this description.
Earnest people striving courageously
against the artificial confines of our
bi-racial social system were themselves
reduced to a state of blindness, so
that they stumbled through a tortu-
ous maze of Dunbar poems and Bur-
leigh-arranged spirituals, and waded
through oceans of tepid tea, with the
hope of reaching an objective which
might have been found at the end of
a direct, well-travelled path. Here we
found completely discarded every
common-sense approach to a problem.
Instead of a studied plan, there was
aimless drifting; instead of living
Life, members of both groups entered
upon a stage, played a brief, ill-fitting
role, and made a grateful exit; instead
of naturalness and productive effort,

JANUARY 1945]

there were pretense and empty ideal-
ism.

Or, the other alternative which too
frequently has occurred has been the
urge to employ the organization as
an omnibus, a cure-all; urging it to
rush blindly into all conflict areas.
The obvious result is that of irritating
both individuals as their fears and
suspicions are sharpened by provid-
ing too many potential and real areas
of conflict. Both are likely to carry
away from such an experience more
deeply fixed emotional scars than
were present at the outset.

On the other hand, our personal
knowledge of Mr. White (let us call
the one) made us know him as one
who believed firmly that skilled
Negro workers were entitled to work
in any place where such skills were
employed—and would fight a buzz-
saw in registering his conviction. Mr.
Brown, among his many pet theories,
believed in this same program with
all his heart. Here was a valuable
combination which shared its com-
mon interest in high enthusiasm and
rare teamwork. Our mistake occurred
when we urged the interracial group
to take up the cudgel against the
restaurant which refused service to a
Negro.

The situations described are purely
hypothetical, but most of us can re-
call their parallels

ACHIEVING INTERRACIAL COOPERATION 65,

ills is bound to end in disaster be-
cause we deliberately intrude upon
what we know to be forbidden
ground. Impatience, thoughtlessness,
and lack of skill have caused many
such difficulties.

In both instances, the common fac-
tors appear to have been, first, the
failure to measure carefully the capac-
ity of the composite membership, and
secondly, the need for shaping and
defining a program that would tax
that capacity to the point of chal-
lenge, and no further.

The natural question to arise
would be, “How then may we utilize
the talents and energies of both the
progressive and the more hesitant
people in programs having such limi-
tations?” My answer would be, by
simply following the rules of com-
munity organization which apply out-
side the interracial sphere; by depart-

the
to which you wish to give attention,
and mobilizing Negroes and Whites
on the basis of their social stature.
Housing enthusiasts, white and col-
ored, share that particular passion
even though having violent disagree-
ments in other areas of thought. Anti-
segregationists, regardless of color,
can be of tremendous value when di-
rected toward certain flagrant condi-

tions; yet they could completely
block the first move for local Hous
here in our by the liness of

past experiences. I present it to illus-
trate my point that our planned inter-
racial program must have its specific
objective, which must of necessity be
the common denominator of the in-
terests of the people involved; and
that the urge to thrust upon the
group the burden of all our social

their crusade, if drawn into the plan-
ning stage of such a community enter-
prise. Direct actionists, however
commendable their purpose, can ruin
irreparably the carefully laid plans of
arbitrators. Conciliators, on the other
hand, usually send the blood pressure
of actionists to the bursting point by

66 HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW

their cautious, fearful, delaying tac-
tics.

In the national scene three splen-
did examples of interracial action are
provided to accommodate the advo-
cates of the several types of control
and method just outlined. A great
many whites are bewildered and mis-
led by what appears to be needless
duplication and waste of effort; and
far too many Negroes, consciously or
unconsciously, create minor areas of
conflict by insisting that each assume
the role of the other. I refer to the
National Urban League, the NAACP,
and the National Negro Congress.

The League, with its objective,
scientific approach attracts the social-
ly-minded elements of both races who
see an ultimate solution of racial
problems in the creation of enlight-
ened self-interest, and through the
universal application of socio-econom-
ic remedies. The NAACP appeals to
the more militant, equalitarian point
of view, and to champions of civil
liberties. These, too, pursue a course

T ski

[vor. xv, NO. 1

could or should occur as long as each
holds to its course. So, on the local
level can such departmentalization be
achieved.

I have said that the job of achieving
interracial coöperation contains no
great mysteries; that it is the old prob-
lem of attaining good human rela-
tionships. It is my conviction that
the basic principles guiding the
formation of community organiza-
tion and group-work activities apply
in every respect to this area of opera-
tion—that is, if they are permitted to
apply. The conscious or unconscious
urge to surround the task with a cloak
of mystery is that which has caused
many failures. Naturalness in at-
tempting interracial work too fre-
quently is tampered with by those
wiser persons who presume to know
bout the so-called “race prob-
lem”; who create new rules with
which to cope with their particular
concept of this phenomenon of indus-
trial civilization; and who prevent

i

of t, seeing
the abrogation of civil rights affect-
ing one group as a constant threat
to themselves through other groups.
The Negro Congress, attracting popu-
lar front and direct action advocates,
provides an outlet for the less re-
strained, more impatient, mass pres-
sure adherents. Although the ulti-
mate objective of each is exactly the
same, membership is drawn from the
elements of both racial groups, to
whom the organization represents a
medium of expression for their inter-
ests, associations, and methods. Each
has its particular job to do in the
accomplishment of the whole task,
and no conflict between the three

the operation of techniques which
k ience has proven to
be effective.

I believe that there are certain fun-
damental landmarks which apply to
the area of interracial action with
even greater emphasis than is true in
community organization generally:

1. We must be purposeful. I am
convinced that more harm than
good has been done by the tra-
ditional “interracial committee”
to which I have made reference
—perhaps too facetiously. Here
we usually discovered neither
purpose nor goal, and it was im-
possible for anyone to penetrate
the veneer of frigid formality
and aloofness which inhibited

JANUARY 1945]

most members of the group.
People do not become acquaint-
ed in such an atmosphere; rather,
they are inclined to become fur-
ther confused by the strangeness
which artificiality has imposed
upon each. Purposefulness pre-
sents an objective. Interest in
the objective induces people to
lose themselves and their self-
consciousness in the common
task.
We must be sincere. An organ-
izer who is not possessed by a
conviction will not be able effec-
tively to overcome the suspicions
which have been acquired in
current racial attitudes. Convic-
tion, of necessity, requires un-
assailable knowledge of the facts
in the situation.
We must be practical. In every
group there will be the advocates
of an all-out crusade; and there
will be those whose fears will
cause them to shrink from any
direct action. Calm judgment is
required to maintain an even
balance and to steer a practical
course between these conflicting
urges.

4. We must be scientific. I mean,
by this, an adherence to basic
principles of community organi-
zation, with application of the
wealth of knowledge amassed by
social-scientists in the realm of
human behavior. We must keep
in our consciousness—in_ facing
any situation—that we are deal-
ing with human beings and hu-
man superstitions. Beware of
him who would forsake science
for rule-of-thumb methods.

In considering the question of or-

w

9

ACHIEVING INTERRACIAL COOPERATION 67

ganizing procedure, I am inclined to
favor the selection of a general objec-
tive as the first step, with personnel
mobilized around the objective, in
the second step. For the reason that
emotional elements are more compel-
ling in the interracial area than gen-
erally applies to other organizational
ventures, it would appear that the
hazards are minimized when prospec-
tive recruits are made aware of ser-
vices which will be exacted of them.
Obviously, the efficacy of the attrac-
tion will depend upon the nature of
the objective. Is there purposefulness
there? Will the program assume the
formlessness of the old “cultural
appreciation” effort? Will it propose
to attack the entire area of racial
restriction, exclusion, and conflict?
Shall it be a temporary gesture for
expediency’s sake, which shall employ
words only as tools to achieve good
will, and to avert open conflict in the
community? Or, shall it become a
consistent and clearly-defined ap-
proach to community discipline,
through utilization of the construc-
tive forces, whose aid will be required
to remove or minimize the causes of
tension? Here again, as in the realm
of general community organization,
the definition of a clear-cut program,
directed toward a specific goal, will
eliminate much doubt, hesitation,
and confusion in attracting recruits.

But what will be the committee’s
function In other words, how spe-
cific may the organizers be in pre-
determining the committee's scope?
The answer to the question will be
found in programs operating in our
communities at the moment, even
though they may not be interracial in
character. For example, you and I

68 HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW

see the need for attention of a citi-
zens’ group to a particular, local situ-
ation. It may be some defection in
the public school system; or it may
be a weakness in local political ad-
ministration. We organize a commit-
tee and attract to that committee the
individuals who would have a like
interest in the eis The chal-

[vor. xv, No. 1

eral interracial committees, each
functioning in a specific field of inter-
est, each attracting to its membership
individuals who find in the commit-
tee objectives outlets for their pri-
mary interests. The important thing,
here, is that there be close coordina-
tion of the work of the several com-
mittees. ne all, is not this the

lenge is th is
mobilized around he challenge and
the job to be done. It isn’t likely,
however, that we will attempt to em-
ploy the organization to remedy all
the evils existing in our community,
because our judgment makes us real-
ize that the wider the scope of re-
sponsibility we dare assume, the fewer
will be the people who will see eye-
to-eye with us on the several issues
involved, and the weaker our organi-
zation is likely to be. In racerela-
tions, as in other problem areas, the
“omnibus” type of organization has
little chance to achieve real success.

The “all-or-nothing” advocates,
however, will object to this proposal
by saying that discrimination in the
use of public facilities is a symbol of
the whole problem, and exclusion of
these areas of study and work would
be a retreat before the forces of re-
action. Not at all! There is nothing
to prevent the formation of a second
group whose avowed function would
be to remove these restrictive bar-
riers. To such a group, obviously,
would be attracted individuals whose
interests lie in that direction, and be-
ing fearless and like-minded on the
issues involved, presumably could
function with a minimum of friction
and a maximum of effectiveness. It
is entirely conceivable that a given
community might well support sev-

in the
professions GE contador soe med
cine—of education? Have we not seen
the need for specialization in every
service intended to meet the needs of
human beings?

In the city of Newark, New Jersey,
such a program of specialization is
working to excellent advantage, in
the well-codrdinated activities of
three citizens’ groups, whose pro-
grams supplement the work of the
Urban League, the Congress of In-
dustrial Organization, the Conference
of Christians and Jews, two poli
cally-created bodies—the N. J. Wel-
fare Commission and the N. J. Good-
will Commission and others. The
oldest of these three groups is the
Newark Interracial Council, which
after several years of operation as an
“omnibus” type of organization de-
cided to concentrate upon the task
of securing hospital facilities for
Negro professionals. During those
early years, it had swayed from project
to project experiencing high mem-
bership turnover in the process and
losing prestige in the larger com-
munity. For the past six years, it has
given itself almost exclusively to this
specific task, attracting to its member-
ship white and colored citizens who
felt that the exclusion of Negro doc-
tors, nurses, and trainees from local
hospitals was affecting the future of

JANUARY 1945]

the entire community. In the latter
process, it has won an enviable repu-
tation for courage and consistency.
Only recently has it won its first vic-
tories, with the admission of Negro
staff physicians to one hospital, a
nurse-trainee to another, and staff
nurses to three institutions. Mean-
time, a spirit of kinship among its
members have been welded, and ra-
cial identities have been forgotten.
But we needed reform in our pub-
lic-school system, in which there had
never been more than eleven Negro
teachers in a community of nearly
500,000 souls, 10% of whom are Negro.
We considered it unwise to swamp
the Interracial Council with a task of
this magnitude in view of its current
commitments. The community was
combed for individuals whose pri-
mary interest was Education but
whose racial views were liberal. Our
immediate objective was that public-
school teachers now in the system be
exposed to a program of interracial
and intercultural training, to mini-
mize the dangers of racism and in-
tolerance appearing in the schools.
Italians, Catholics, Jews, Protestant,
Anglo-Saxons, and "Negroes joined
hands to promote the major plan and
deliberate upon the secondary plan
for the integration of Negro teachers.
This committee has. achieved its
first goal by enrolling twenty-five
public-school teachers in the first
course on i

ACHIEVING INTERRACIAL COOPERATION 69

books; preparation and use of a sylla-
bus on intercultural relationships for
classroom use, and an increase in the
number of Negro teachers, particular-
ly on the secondary level and in guid-
ance and counselling. The recent
addition to the Board of Education
of its first. Negro member has given
us a strong, influential ally that
promises well for our plans.

As a wave of race-rioting descended
upon the country, another challenge
was accepted. Although there has
been no evidence of subversive activi-
ty in our community, points of fric-
tion are noticeable where Negro and
Italian youth were in proximity. Our
daily press is fairer than average; our
Negro press is militant as the average;
and our police force as tough as the
average. An organization accepting
responsibility for easement of these
tensions must be calm and objective,
broadly representative of the leader-
ship of groups most likely to be in-
volved in local clashes, and possessing
sufficient influence or prestige that its
findings and recommendations would
be heard.

First we listed the civic, social, la-
bor, nationality, and racial groups
whose influences would be needed at
some stage in our plan. Then we
centered upon individuals who pos-
sessed liberal views and who fitted
into these several groups. Next by
applying the test of our program out-
line, we elimi: d those who could

ever offered by our Teachers College.
We have presented to the Board of
Education, which has approved them
in principle, a list of recommenda-
tions including in-service training
courses for all teachers; review and
elimination of unsatisfactory text-

not stand the pressure. When the
survivors were invited, they respond-
ed almost to the last man.

Today a group of over a hundred
people, not more than a dozen of
whom are identified with the two
groups previously mentioned, are

70 HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW

formed into five active sub-commit-
tees and an executive committee. Al-
ready they have launched educational
programs in industrial plants, reach-
ing labor, supervision, and manage-
ment alike. Another group has had
the temerity to discuss news-angling
methods with r ives of the

[vor. xv, NO. 1

acts as clearing house, referral center,
and coordinating agency for its mem-
ber constituency. Thus, all danger
of overlapping, duplication, or com-
petitive waste has been minimized,
and the means for instantaneous mo-
bilization of all the liberal forces in

Negro press, as well as with the daily
and the language press. A third group
is planning its way carefully for an
approach to police officials on the
training of policemen in attitudes and
treatment of minorities; while still
another is joining forces with group
work and leisure-time programs for
teen-age youth who have been at
the center of most minor clashes. In-
to these sub-committees have been
channelled committee members ac-
cording to their primary interests and
social stature.

One other technique has been em-
ployed which I believe deserves men-
tion. From a nucleus of a few all-out
liberals have been chosen six whose
time and interest are such that they
have been assigned to spark each com-
mittee. Chairman and secretary were
selected on the basis of interest and
prestige—the spark plug on the basis
of interest and time to devote to the
work, plus possession of sufficient tact
that will always assure recognition of
and i to the i

the have been provided
for any emergency.

Just a brief moment for considera-
tion of local committee objectives.
Each successful interracial effort has
as its ultimate aim the accomplish-
ment of the following general results:

Exposure to each other of people
of both groups, as a means to
mutual understanding and re-
spect, and as the one certain
method of eliminating racial in-
sularity;

Initiation of joint and consid-
ered effort toward remedying lo-
cal conditions which are the
sources of suspicion, resentment,
and conflict; and

Provision of a medium for shap-
ing an informed and positive
public opinion, to replace the
misconceptions and fears now
prevailing.

Le

ce

Among these can be discovered in-
numerable challenges stemming from
specific problems which need reme-

chairman.

Our most recent step has been to
form a Codrdinating Council whose
membership is composed of two elect-
ed delegates from each of these three
citizens’ groups and from eleven other
organizations whose programs relate
to some phase of intercultural rela-
tionships. This Council is a planning,
rather than functional body, which

dial In a group such as
this, no argument is needed to em-
phasize the fact that racial tensions
observable today are the surface
symptoms of underlying social and
economic dislocations, It may require
some discussion to convince a few
that the treatment indicated by pres-
ent symptoms must be more than the
counter-irritant of lecture or repri-
mand, more than the sedative of edi-

JANUARY 1945]

torial sentimentality. The social ill-
ness which almost has reached a
chronic stage needs drastic and con-
sistent medication. This is to say that
a program that will be meaningful
must recognize one or more of the
obvious causes for dissatisfaction in
the Negro community, as well as
those that are responsible for much
of the guilt feeling existing in the
white community—the two represent-
ing the powder and the spark! .

iscri: is the

ACHIEVING INTERRACIAL COOPERATION y

the average city or town. These are
just some of the basic issues in the
local scene, and the committee's
stature will be measured by the intel-
ligence, the consistency, the diligence,
and the dignity with which it tackles
any one or combination of these
tension-producing factors in the com-
munity.

Members of the social-work profes-
sion rank high on the list of the Na-
tion’s Tealists: It is going to require
the 1 hip of realists to bring or-

greatest, single ‘challenge, followed
closely by the universal picture of
poor housing. Any clear-sighted, fair-
minded citizen could enlist in either
cause without losing face or being
charged with advocating that fearful
though undefinable thing — social
equality. Increased health and recre-
ational facilities and revised and ad-
justed systems of public-school ale

der out of our most confusing and
contradictory domestic problem. As
realists, we have been aware of the
scientific fact that racism is a super-
stition which has been permitted to
weaken our democratic structure. As
realists, we must marshall scientific
fact to our aid, in order that we may
fulfill our obligation to the society
we serve. As realists, we know that

cation are restoring

is a poor for

self-esteem in the white and colored
citizens of many progressive Ameri-
can cities; but many more show seri-
ous need for application of corrective
measures. Interpretations and pro-
tests directed to newspaper editors on
the biased slanting of racial news, and
to police officials on the almost uni-
versal prevalence of police brutality
in minority group areas, can remove
many of the most potent irritants in

progressive action; that sympathy
alone cannot serve in the stead of
understanding aid; and that paternal-
ism can never supply man’s constant
demand for justice and fair dealing.
Let us not permit emotionalism to
blind us to our responsibility; tradi-
tion to distort our perspective of the
basic issues involved in this problem;
nor superstition to impede us in the
pursuit of our task.